Christian Union: The Case for Jesus Resurrection

Why Does it Matter if Jesus Rose?

• Firstly, if there is no God, then there is no objective meaning or purpose to life, nothing ultimately matters, and there is no final hope.
• So, what if Queen Elizabeth I rose?
• The context of Jesus’ life (cf. John 14:6; Mark 14:61–64)
• 1 Corinthians 15:14–19

How Can We Know?

1. The Bible Tells Me So
2. The Spirit’s Witness
3. Historical Investigation
4. Presuppose
5. From the changed life of friends
6. Prior reasoning that God would do such a thing [Swinburne, “The Probability of the Resurrection of Jesus,” Philosophia Christi (2013)]

Scripture

•  i.e., 1 Cor 15:3 For I passed on to you as of first importance what I also received—that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, 4 and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day according to the scriptures, 5 and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. 6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred of the brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. 7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. (NET2)
• Is it circular reasoning to say Jesus rose because the Bible says so?

The Witness of the Spirit

• The witness of the Holy Spirit personally and directly to you – of a restored relationship with God through his risen Son as testified in his word, the Bible (cf. Rom 8:9; 16; Heb 10:15; Gal 4:6–9; 1 John 5:6–10).
• Can belief in Jesus’ resurrection be a properly basic belief? Meaning, can reformed epistemology include the resurrection, and hence, one could be justified or warranted in that belief without other evidence.

See: Plantinga, Knowledge and Christian Belief, 2015.

Historical Investigation Yields Probabilities

• Demonstration by the historical method increases the probability of a particular event; it does not prove it.
• The theory of underdetermination indicates that there are multiple hypotheses that could fit the limited data (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/ )
• Abduction: inference to the best explanation (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ )
• Much of history is lost, so reconstructions are tentative.

The Historical Method

1. The sources
2. Source criticism (or historical criticism): evaluating the usefulness of the sources
   1. Distance of the sources (also being aware of forgeries)
   1. The perspective or bias of the witness (also considering the genre)
   1. Multiple independent attestation
   1. Criterion of embarrassment
   1. Dissimilarity: it cannot be plausibly explained by contemporary factors
   1. Unintentional signs of history and undesigned coincidences
   1. Criterion of the impact of an event
   1. Coherence with existing data
   1. Marks of memory
3. Interpret the data (within a metaphysical framework)
   1. The best explanation

See Bock, Darrell L. Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods. 2002.

Burr, Authenticating Criteria in Jesus Research and Beyond, 2023

• Argues that these are the same criteria used in “secular” history.

Zolondek, The Quest for a Historical Jesus Methodology, 2023

• Argues that “secular” historians tend to consider the overall reliability of a source rather than individual passages (and, in general, that the New Testament is reliable).

Rowlands, The Metaphysics of Historical Jesus Research, 2023

• Argues that a “secular” or naturalist bias, worldview, and presuppositions influence modern academic historical Jesus research, and scholars should be more open.

Dating the Sources

Book	Lower (Bernier)	Lower (Robinson)	Middle (Harnack)	Higher (Sturdy)
Matthew	45–59	50	70–75	130
Mark	42–45	45	65–73	80
Luke	59	60	80–95	110
John	60–70	65	80–110	140
Acts	62	62	80–95	130
Romans	winter of 56/57	57	56–57	50
1 Corinthians	early 56	55	56	50
2 Corinthians	late 56	56	56	50
Galatians	47–52	56	53	50
Ephesians	57–59	58	57–59	100
Philippians	57–59	58	57–59	50
Colossians	57–59	58	57–59	80
1 Thessalonians	50–52	50	48–49	40
2 Thessalonians	50–52	50–51	48–49	120
1 Timothy—if Pauline	63 or 64	55	n/a	n/a
1 Timothy—if pseudo	60–150	n/a	90–110	140
2 Timothy—if Pauline	64–68	58	n/a	n/a
2 Timothy—if pseudo	60–150	n/a	90–110	140
Titus—if Pauline	63 or 64	57	n/a	n/a
Titus—if pseudo	60–175	n/a	90–110	140
Philemon	57–59	58	57–62	50
Hebrews	50–70	67	81–96	110
James	prior to 62	47–48	70–90	130
1 Peter	60–69	65	81–96	110
2 Peter—if Petrine	60–69	61–62	n/a	n/a
2 Peter—if pseudo	60–125	n/a	110–120	150
1 John	60–100	60–65	80–110	140
2 John	60–100	60–65	80–110	140
3 John	prior to 100	60–65	80–110	140
Jude	prior to 96	61–62	100–130	130
Revelation	68–70	68	93–96	150

Bernier, Rethinking the Dates of the New Testament, 2022.

Historical Sources: The Genre

• The New Testament documents are generally taken to contain historical information.
• The Gospels are often viewed a form of ancient bioi.

Burridge, What Are the Gospels? 3rd ed. (2018); Keener, Christobiography (2019); Judd, Modern Genre Theory (2024), 202–21; Bond, “Biography,” in The Next Quest for the Historical Jesus (2024), 62–76.

Multiple Independent Attestation

• Having more than one source lends credibility to the account. Not two copies of the same story but two separate accounts that cohere. For instance, we have multiple accounts that Jesus died (cf. 1 Cor 15:3; Mark 15:37; Matt 27:50; Luke 23:46; John 19:30; Acts 2:36; Rom 1:4; 2 Cor 5:14; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:20; Col 1:18; 1 Thess 1:10; 2 Tim 2:11; Heb 6:6; 1 Pet 1:3; Rev 1:18).
• Also, other things are recurrently attested, such as that Jesus performed miracles or told parables.

Criterion of Embarrassment

• Difficult details for which it is unlikely to have been fabricated by the disciples. For instance, why would the early church make up the story that one of their key leaders, Peter, denied Jesus (cf. Mark 14:66–72//Matt 26:69–75//Luke 22:54–62 and John 18:15–18, 25–27).

Internal Evidence for Reliability

• Mark 6:30–44 Feeding 5000. Why are so many without food? Why the mention of green grass?
• John 6:1–15 It was the Passover festival, so lots of Pilgrims came, and this was after the wet season, hence the lush pasture.

See: Williams, Peter J. Can We Trust the Gospels? 2018.

Early Memory of Jesus

• Argues that it is within the bounds of human memory to have remembered the key details of Jesus’ life.

Graieg, Resurrection Remembered, 2024.

Sources to Jesus’ Resurrection

Mark 16; Matthew 28; Luke 24; John 20–21; Acts 1:1–11, 22; 2:23–36; 3:15, 20, 22, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30–32; 7:52, 55–56; 9:3–5, 17; 10:39–41; 13:28–37; 17:3, 18, 31–32; 20:28; 22:6–11, 14–15; 23:6; 24:15, 21; 25:19; 26:8, 12–16, 19, 23; 1 Cor 6:14; 15; 2 Cor 4:10–11, 14; 5:15; 13:4; 1 Thess 1:10; 4:14; 5:10; Gal 1:1, 12, 16; 2:19–20; Rom 1:4; 4:24–25; 6:4–5, 9–10; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 14:9; Phil 2:9–11; 3:10–11, 20–21; Eph 1:20; 2:5–6; 4:8–10; Col 1:18; 2:12; 2:20; 3:1–4; 1 Tim 3:16; 2 Tim 1:10; 2:8, 11; 1 Pet 1:3; 3:21; Heb 11:35; 13:20; 1 Clem. 24:1; 42:2–3; Ign. Trall. 9:2; Ign. Rom. 6:1; Ign. Magn. 9:2; 11:1; Ign. Smyrn. 1:2; 2:1; 3:1–3; 7:1; 12:2; Ign. Eph. 20:1; Ign. Phil. 8:2; Poly. Phil. 1:2; 2:1–2; 9:2; 12:2; Justin Martyr 1 Apol. 21:1; 31:7; 42:4; 46:5; Dial. 63:1; 80:4; 85:2; 132:1; Irenaeus Haer. 1.10.1; 3.4.2; 3.16.6; Tertullian Prax. 2; Praescr. 13; Virg. 1; Josephus Ant. 18.63–64; The Babylonian Talmud, b. Sanh. 43a; Tacitus Annals 15.44; Didache 16:6–7; Barnabas 5:6–7; 15:9; Fragments of Papias 3:9; 5:1; Lucian Peregr. 11–13; the Gospel of Peter; Gos. Thom. 37, 51; the Gospel of Philip 56:18–19; 66:7–8, 16–20; 67:15; 69:25; 73:3–4, 19; 74:20; and The Treatise on the Resurrection.

Jesus’ Resurrection: The Basic Facts

1. Jesus’ death
2. Burial
3. The empty tomb
4. Various people believed they saw appearances of Jesus

See Habermas, On the Resurrection: Evidences, vol. 1, 2024.

1) Jesus’ Death

• Whipped, crucified, and speared (cf. Matt 27; Mark 15; Luke 23; John 19). For a medical perspective, see: Edwards, Gabel, and Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ” JAMA 255 (1986): 1455–63.
• Tacitus, Annals 15.44, wrote in the early second century, “Their name comes from Christ, who, during the reign of Tiberius, had been executed by the procurator Pontius Pilate.”
• Josephus, Antiquities 18.63–64: “And in this time, there was a certain Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one ought to call him a man, for he was a doer of incredible deeds[or magical deeds], a teacher of men who receive truisms with pleasure. And he brought over [or led astray] many from among the Jews and many from among the Greeks. He was [thought to be] the Christ. And, when Pilate had condemned him to the cross at the accusation of the first men among us, those who at first were devoted to him did not cease to be so, for on the third day it seemed to them that he was alive again given that the divine prophets had spoken such things and thousands of other wonderful things about him. And up till now the tribe of the Christians, who were named from him, has not disappeared.”
• T. C. Schmidt, Josephus and Jesus: New Evidence for the One Called Christ, 2025; Page 211, “Josephus’ account of Jesus does not likely reflect information about Jesus that originated in 93/ 4 CE, when Josephus wrote the TF [Testimonium Flavianum]. Rather, Josephus’ information goes back many decades earlier and can be traced to those who interrogated the apostles in the 30s through 60s CE and to those who attended Jesus’ trial in 30/ 33 CE.”

2) Burial

• Multiple independent sources (cf. Matt 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:51; John 19:38; 1 Cor 15:4) indicate that Jesus’ body was buried (by Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Sanhedrin; embarrassment).

3) Empty Tomb

• Discovered by women (embarrassing; Talmud, Rosh Hashannah 1.8; Josephus, Antiquities 4.8.15) and others (Peter and John [Luke 24:12; John 20:3–8]).
• Jewish leaders acknowledged this fact by admitting the body was missing (cf. Matt 28:11–15; Justin Martyr, Trypho 108; Tertullian, De Spectaculis 30).

4) Belief of Appearances

• The disciples, skeptics, and enemies believed they saw appearances of Jesus (cf. 1 Cor 15:3–8; Luke 24:13–35, 34, 26–45; 50–53; Acts 1:3–11; 13:31; Matt 28:16–20; Mark 16:9–19).
• This resulted in changed lives.

Criteria to Evaluate a Theory

• Inference to the best explanation: 1) Explanatory scope, 2) Explanatory power, 3) Plausibility, 4) Less ad hoc. See: Douven, “Abduction,” SEP. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/

Theories to Explain the Data

• The story developed as a legend over time, a mere myth
• The disciples didn’t experience anything but claimed they did (false claims or no experience hypothesis)
• All experiences of Jesus were intra-mental (hallucination theory)
• What the disciples experienced was extra-mental, but was not actually Jesus (mistaken identity theory)
• The disciples extra-mentally experienced Jesus, but Jesus didn’t actually die on the cross, just fainted and revived naturally in the tomb (swoon theory) [or Jesus escaped, someone else was crucified, and Jesus later showed himself to the disciples].
• They experienced Jesus, who had died and was back from the dead (resurrection hypothesis)

See: Loke, Investigating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, 2020; Graieg, “Resurrection Misremembered?” JETS 68 (2025) [part one and two].

A Later Story: A legend over time

• Accusation that the NT is too far removed.
  • The early dating of the NT; it was written during the lifetime of the eyewitnesses.
• Copied pagan myths of dying-and-rising deities.
  • Superficial (i.e., Tammuz Osiris, Adonis season symbols for the crop cycle).
  • There is no causal connection (it needs to be shown that the Jews learn these stories from these cultures). Generally, the Jews didn’t like pagan teachings (that is why they were sent into exile, and they wanted to stay away from idolatry).

No Experiences

• The view that the disciples lied and made up a story.
• Why die for a lie?
• Denies the appearances.
• Doesn’t explain the conversion of skeptics such as James and Paul.
• What happened to the body?

Intramental

• Hallucinations
  • Does not explain the empty tomb.
  • Not likely since it happen to multiple people, including enemies like Saul.
• Visions

Extramental: Mistaken Identity

• Ad hoc: Jesus must have had an unknown, identical twin brother who was separated from him at birth, and who showed up in Jerusalem at the time of the crucifixion, stole Jesus’ body, and then showed himself to the disciples, leading them to mistakenly infer that Jesus rose from the dead (Cavin, Miracles, Probability, and the Resurrection of Jesus, 1993).

Extramental but Swooned (Apparent Death Theory).

• Jesus didn’t die just fainted.
  • A badly wounded Messiah would not inspire followers to say, “Death has been conquered.”

The Resurrection Hypothesis

• The disciples really saw Jesus, and Jesus was really dead but now alive.
• God raised Jesus from the dead.
  • Requires that God exists and that God would want to raise Jesus.
• Some implications: “But now Christ has been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who are asleep” (1 Cor 15:20).

What Fits the Historical Method?

1. The earliest Christians believed Jesus rose bodily from the dead.
2. The earliest Christians believed Jesus was raised bodily from the dead by God.
3. Jesus actually did rise bodily from the dead.
4. Jesus was actually raised bodily from the dead by God.

Geivett, “The Epistemology of the Resurrection Belief,” in The Resurrection of Jesus, 2006, 95.

How Do Other Worldviews / Religions Respond?

• Atheism – no miracles.
• Hinduism and Buddhism – reincarnation.
• Islam – Quran 4.157 Jesus did not die. See https://engagingwithislam.org/

Modern Resurrection Claims

• i.e., “Raised from the Dead” DVD by Reinhard Bonnke

See: http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/religious_studies/rel_stud_res_claims_in_non-christian_religions.htm

Conclusion

• Three ways one can know whether Jesus rose from the dead and hence, the truth of Christianity:
• The Spirit’s Witness
• The Bible Tells Me So
• Historical Investigation
• “He made Him who knew no sin to be sin on our behalf, so that we might become the righteousness of God in Him” (2 Cor 5:21).

Recommended Reading

• William Lane Craig, https://www.reasonablefaith.org/did-jesus-rise-from-the-dead
• Licona, Michael R. The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach, 2010. 718 pages.
• Allison, Dale C. Jr. The Resurrection of Jesus: Apologetics, Polemics, History, 2021.
• Wright, N. T. The Resurrection of the Son of God, 2003. 740 pages.
• Schreiner, The Hope of the Resurrection: How Jesus’s Defeat of Death Changes Everything. 2026. 160pp.
• Jones, Timothy Paul. Did the Resurrection Really Happen? Crossway, 2025. 96 pages

Muslim Understanding

• Surah 4:157 states: “That they said (in boast), “We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah”; but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not”
• See: Cumming, “Did Jesus Die on the Cross? The History of Reflection on the End of His Earthly Life in Sunni Tafsir Literature.” https://josephcumming.com/did-jesus-die-on-the-cross

What Happened to His Body?

1. Jesus’ friends (why go on to die for a lie).
2. Jesus’ enemies (why didn’t they just produce the body).
3. A neutral party (what is their motivation, how did they get past the guards, why didn’t they tell afterwards, still requires another account of how the disciples’ brief of appearances came about).
4. Jesus himself – he didn’t die (that he lived is unlikely, and a wounded individual does not inspire one to believe death is conquered).
5. Jesus himself – he died and rose again.

Just Spiritual

• 1 Cor 15:44 – sown a natural body, raised a spiritual body.
• It is not a comparison of material versus immaterial, but rather spiritual/holy vs sinful (see 1 Cor 2:13).
• Luke 24:36–43 Jesus eats fish.

Ware, James P. The Final Triumph of God: Jesus, the Eyewitnesses, and the Resurrection of the Body in 1 Corinthians 15. Eerdmans, 2025.

The Ending of Mark’s Gospel?

•  Mark 16:8 Then they went out and ran from the tomb, for terror and bewilderment had seized them. And they said nothing to anyone, because they were afraid.
• 9 [[Early on the first day of the week, after he arose, he appeared first to Mary Magdalene, from whom he had driven out seven demons.

See: Black, ed., Perspectives on the Ending of Mark, 2008; or the NET Bible notes https://netbible.org/bible/Mark+16

Apparent Conflicts

• Was it still dark or morning when the women reached the tomb? (Mark 16:2; Matt 28:1; Luke 24:1; John 20:1)
• How many women were at the tomb? (Mark 16:1; Matt 28:1; Luke 24:2, 10, 22; John 20:1, 11)
• Was there one or two young men or angels at the tomb? (Mark 16:5; Matt 28:2, 5; Luke 24:4, 10, 22; John 20:13)
• Did Jesus first appear to the disciples in Jerusalem or Galilee? (Mark 16:7; Matt 28:10; Luke 24:33–43)

See: Archer, New International Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties, 2001.

Geisler and Howe, The Big Book of Bible Difficulties: Clear and Concise Answers from Genesis to Revelation, 2008.

Jesus Family Tomb

• James Cameron’s documentary, “The Lost Tomb of Jesus,” 2007.
• Bock points out that this is highly unlikely, as the tomb was found in Jerusalem, and as Jesus’ family was from Galilee, the names were very common names, and so they really could have been anyone. They tried to link the tenth ossuary to that of James, but it was 4cm too short to fit the data, and DNA testing wasn’t carried out on all the remains. They also try to claim that Jesus was married to Mary Magdalene and that the disciples stole the body and lied about the resurrection.

See: Bock, and Wallace, Dethroning Jesus, 2007, 193–214; and http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/The_Lost_Tomb_of_Jesus/losttombofjesus_response.htm

What about Other Gospels?

i.e., The Gospel of Peter

• 9.34. Now when the morning of the Sabbath dawned a crowd came from Jerusalem and the surrounding region that they might see the tomb which had been sealed. 35. But during the night in which the Lord’s day dawned, while the soldiers were guarding two by two according to post, there was a great voice in the sky. 36. And they saw the heavens were being opened, and two men descended from there, having much brightness, and they drew near to the tomb. 37. But that stone which had been placed at the entrance rolled away by itself and made way in part and the tomb was opened and both the young men went in.
• 10.38. Then those soldiers seeing it awoke the centurion and the elders, for they were present also keeping guard. 39. While they were reporting what they had seen, again they saw coming out from the tomb three men, and the two were supporting the one, and a cross following them. 40. And the head of the two reached as far as heaven, but that of the one being led by them surpassed the heavens. 41. And they were hearing a voice from the heavens saying, ‘Have you preached to those who sleep?’ 42. And a response was heard from the cross, ‘Yes.’

See: Foster, The Gospel of Peter Introduction: Critical Edition and Commentary, 2010.