By David Graieg
Jesus: A Range of Views
- There are a lot of different opinions about who Jesus was. Some say he was a myth, others a prophet or a false prophet, some say a guru or a lama (a mystical spiritual teacher), others a hippy, a failed revolutionary, some say a preacher of the end of the world, some say he was the Jewish Messiah (i.e., the Christ), some that he is God the Son.
Why this Matters?
Jesus’ ranking among the most influential persons of all time varies from #3 (Rhys McKay, WHO, December 5, 2019, https://www.who.com.au/entertainment/most-influential-people-of-all-time/ behind 2 Einstein and 1 Martin Luther King Jr; Michael H. Hart, The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, 1978; behind 2 Isaac Newton and 1 Muhammad) to #1 (Steven Skiena and Charles B. Ward, Who’s Bigger?: Where Historical Figures Really Rank. Cambridge University Press, 2014. https://ideas.time.com/2013/12/10/whos-biggest-the-100-most-significant-figures-in-history/ ).
- If God doesn’t exist or if Jesus was not raised from the dead, this topic doesn’t really matter (in fact, life probably doesn’t matter), but if the general claims of Christianity are true, that changes everything.
A Definition of History
- Roughly speaking, history refers to “past events and processes,” and historiography to “the results of inquiries about history, written accounts of the past” (Tucker, “Introduction,” in A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography, 2009, 2).
Historical Investigation Yields Probabilities
- Demonstration by the historical method just increases the probability of a particular event; it does not prove it.
- The theory of underdetermination indicates that there are multiple hypotheses that could fit the limited data (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/ )
- Abduction: inference to the best explanation (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ )
- Much of history is lost, so reconstructions are tentative.
Historical Criteria: of Authenticity
- Distance of the source (reported early)
- The bias of the witness
- Multiple independent attestation (and multiple forms)
- Embarrassing testimony (and hostile/disinterested attestation)
- Dissimilarity: not plausibly explained by contemporary factors
- Unintentional signs of history
- Criterion of the impact of an event
- Coherence with existing data
(some challenge these and suggest a memory approach instead).
See Bock, Darrell L. Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods. 2002.
Multiple Independent Attestation
- Having more than one source lends credibility to the account. Not two copies of the same story but two separate accounts that cohere. For instance, we have multiple accounts that Jesus died (cf. 1 Cor 15:3; Mark 15:37; Matt 27:50; Luke 23:46; John 19:30; Acts 2:36; Rom 1:4; 2 Cor 5:14; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:20; Col 1:18; 1 Thess 1:10; 2 Tim 2:11; Heb 6:6; 1 Pet 1:3; Rev 1:18; 1 Clem. 24:1; Ign. Trall. 2:1; 9:2; Ign. Eph. 20:1; Ign. Rom. 6:1; Ign. Magn. 9:2; Ign. Phld. 8:2; Ign. Smyrn. 1; 3:1–3; Poly. Phil. 1:2; Josephus Ant. 18.63–64; Tacitus Ann. 15.44.).
- Also, other things are recurrently attested, such as that Jesus performed miracles or told parables.
Criterion of Embarrassment
- Difficult details for which it is unlikely to have been fabricated by the disciples. For instance, why would the early church make up the story that one of their key leaders, Peter, denied Jesus (cf. Mark 14:66–72//Matt 26:69–75//Luke 22:54–62 and John 18:15–18, 25–27).
Burr, Authenticating Criteria in Jesus Research and Beyond, 2023
- Argues that these are the same criteria used in “secular” history.
Zolondek, The Quest for a Historical Jesus Methodology, 2023
- Argues that “secular” historians tend to consider the overall reliability of a source rather than individual passages (and, in general, that the New Testament is reliable).
Rowlands, The Metaphysics of Historical Jesus Research, 2023
- Argues that a “secular” or naturalist bias, worldview, and presuppositions influence modern academic historical Jesus research and scholars should be more open.
Internal Evidence for Reliability
- Mark 6:30–44 Feeding 5000. Why are so many without food? Why the mention of green grass?
- John 6:1–15 It was Passover festival, so lots of Pilgrims came, and this was after the wet season, hence the lush pasture.
See: Williams, Peter J. Can We Trust the Gospels? 2018.
Dating the Sources
| Book | Lower (Bernier) | Lower (Robinson) | Middle (Harnack) | Higher (Sturdy) |
| Matthew | 45–59 | 50 | 70–75 | 130 |
| Mark | 42–45 | 45 | 65–73 | 80 |
| Luke | 59 | 60 | 80–95 | 110 |
| John | 60–70 | 65 | 80–110 | 140 |
| Acts | 62 | 62 | 80–95 | 130 |
| Romans | winter of 56/57 | 57 | 56–57 | 50 |
| 1 Corinthians | early 56 | 55 | 56 | 50 |
| 2 Corinthians | late 56 | 56 | 56 | 50 |
| Galatians | 47–52 | 56 | 53 | 50 |
| Ephesians | 57–59 | 58 | 57–59 | 100 |
| Philippians | 57–59 | 58 | 57–59 | 50 |
| Colossians | 57–59 | 58 | 57–59 | 80 |
| 1 Thess | 50–52 | 50 | 48–49 | 40 |
| 2 Thess | 50–52 | 50–51 | 48–49 | 120 |
| 1 Timothy—if Pauline | 63 or 64 | 55 | n/a | n/a |
| 1 Timothy—if pseudo | 60–150 | n/a | 90–110 | 140 |
| 2 Timothy—if Pauline | 64–68 | 58 | n/a | n/a |
| 2 Timothy—if pseudo | 60–150 | n/a | 90–110 | 140 |
| Titus—if Pauline | 63 or 64 | 57 | n/a | n/a |
| Titus—if pseudo | 60–175 | n/a | 90–110 | 140 |
| Philemon | 57–59 | 58 | 57–62 | 50 |
| Hebrews | 50–70 | 67 | 81–96 | 110 |
| James | prior to 62 | 47–48 | 70–90 | 130 |
| 1 Peter | 60–69 | 65 | 81–96 | 110 |
| 2 Peter—if Petrine | 60–69 | 61–62 | n/a | n/a |
| 2 Peter—if pseudo | 60–125 | n/a | 110–120 | 150 |
| 1 John | 60–100 | 60–65 | 80–110 | 140 |
| 2 John | 60–100 | 60–65 | 80–110 | 140 |
| 3 John | prior to 100 | 60–65 | 80–110 | 140 |
| Jude | prior to 96 | 61–62 | 100–130 | 130 |
| Revelation | 68–70 | 68 | 93–96 | 150 |
Bernier, Rethinking the Dates of the New Testament, 2022.
Comparison to Other Ancient texts
| Histories | Oldest Manuscripts | Number Surviving |
| Livy, 59 B.C.–A.D. 17 | 4th Century | 27 |
| Tacitus, A.D. 56–120 | 9th Century | 3 |
| Suetonius, A.D. 69–140 | 9th Century | 200+ |
| Thucydides, 460–400BC | 1st Century A.D. | 20 |
| Herodotus, 484–425BC | 1st Century A.D. | 75 |
| New Testament, c. A.D. 40s–90s | c. 100–150 | c., 5,700+ Greek, 10,000+ Latin, 1,000,000 quotations in church fathers |
Komoszewski, Sawyer, and Wallace, Reinventing Jesus, 2006, p71.
Pontius Pilate Inscription
[DIS AUGUSTI]S TIBERIÉUM (To the Divine Augusti [this] Tiberieum)
[…PONTI]US PILATUS (…Pontius Pilate)
[…PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E (…prefect of Judea)
[…FECIT D]E[DICAVIT] (…has dedicated [this]).
(see John 18:28–29, Luke 3:1)
Tacitus, Roman Historian
- Wrote in the early second century (about AD 116), “Therefore, to put down the rumor, Nero substituted as culprits and punished in the most unusual ways those hated for their shameful acts, whom the crowd called “Chrestians.” The founder of this name, Christ, had been executed in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate. Suppressed for a time, the deadly superstition erupted again not only in Judea, the origin of this evil, but also in the city, where all things horrible and shameful from everywhere come together and become popular” (Annals 15.44).
See Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence, 2000.
1 Thessalonians
- 1:3 hope in our Lord Jesus Christ. … 5 our gospel …6 You became imitators of us and of the Lord…10 and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead—Jesus, who rescues us from the coming wrath. (NIV2011)
| Lower (Bernier) | Lower (Robinson) | Middle (Harnack) | Higher (Sturdy) | |
| 1 Thess | 50–52 AD | 50 AD | 48–49 AD | 40 AD |
Bias of Author: Paul/Saul, a former persecutor of the way (Christianity).
Mark (NET2)
- 1:1 The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
- 1:9 Now in those days Jesus came from Nazareth in Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan River. (cf. Matt 3:13)
- 10:45 For even the Son of Man did not come to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” (cf. Matt 20:28)
- 15:25 It was nine o’clock in the morning when they crucified him. 26 The inscription of the charge against him read, “The king of the Jews.” (cf. Luke 23:38//Matt 27:37, John 19:19)
- 16:6 But he said to them, “Do not be alarmed. You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified. He has been raised! He is not here. Look, there is the place where they laid him. 7 But go, tell his disciples, even Peter, that he is going ahead of you into Galilee. You will see him there, just as he told you.” (cf. Luke 24:5–6//Matt 28:5–6)
| Lower (Bernier) | Lower (Robinson) | Middle (Harnack) | Higher (Sturdy) | |
| Mark | 42–45 AD | 45 AD | 65–73 AD | 80 AD |
Dates in the mid-50s or 60s are also common.
Bias of Author: Probably John Mark, the deserter (cf. Acts 12:25; 13:13; 15:37–39), heavily based on the eyewitness testimony of Peter.
See: https://bestcommentaries.com
E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, 1993
- “There are no substantial doubts about the general course of Jesus’ life: when and where he lived, approximately when and where he died, and the sort of thing that he did during his public activity” (p. 10).
Bock and Webb, eds. Key Events in the Life of the Historical Jesus, 2010
- Jesus’ Baptism by John
- Exorcisms and the Kingdom: Inaugurating the Kingdom of God and Defeating the Kingdom of Satan
- Jesus and the Twelve
- Jesus’ Table Fellowship with Sinners
- Sabbath Controversies
- Peter’s Declaration concerning Jesus’ Identity in Caesarea Philippi
- Jesus’ Royal Entry into Jerusalem
- The Temple Incident
- The Last Supper
- Blasphemy and the Jewish Examination of Jesus
- The Roman Examination and Crucifixion of Jesus
- Jesus’ Empty Tomb and His Appearance in Jerusalem
Saturday Evening Post, October 26, 1929
- Reporter: “To what extent are you influenced by Christianity?”
- Einstein: “As a child, I received instruction both in the Bible and in the Talmud. I am a Jew, but I am enthralled by the luminous figure of the Nazarene.”
- Reporter: “You accept the historical existence of Jesus?”
- Einstein: “Unquestionably! No one can read the Gospels without feeling the actual presence of Jesus. His personality pulsates in every word. No myth is filled with such life. How different, for instance, is the impression which we receive from an account of legendary heroes of antiquity like Theseus. Theseus and other heroes of his type lack the authentic vitality of Jesus.”
Further Reading
Dickson, John. Is Jesus History? Epsom, UK: The Good Book Company, 2019. 160 pages
Licona, Michael R. The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2010. 718 pages.